INTRODUCTION

Global warming is a common challenge for society. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report presents that increasing mean surface air temperatures over oceans and land have been observed over the last century (IPCC, 2013). Additionally, in several regions of the world it is evident that climate change has affected both terrestrial food production and crop yields (IPCC, 2014). Under climate change, especially in developing countries, such as China, agriculture is the most vulnerable economic sector (Chen S. et al., 2016).

A widespread observation is that climate change will affect both the geographical distribution of the wine industry and the quality of the product. Although wine is not an essential agricultural product for survival, it is closely connected to human history and culture as a significant product of human ingenuity (Mozell and Thach, 2014). Viticulture contributes to the local economy, tourism, industry and natural habitat (Duchene, 2016; Resco et al., 2016). In recent years, China has joined the world’s wine world presenting significant suitable regions and diverse climatic sites (De Orduña, 2010; Hannah et al., 2013). A great expansion of Chinese domestic wineries in new regions with increasing capability may be observed (Mozell and Thach, 2014). While there have been continued improvements in the wine industry, it is necessary to recognize the impact of global climate change, which will bring both challenges and opportunities to China.

In this paper, we review the development of the Chinese wine industry and explore how climate change will affect viticulture and the Chinese wine industry. Next, we provide climate change adaptation strategies for the wine industry in China.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we use secondary data collected from the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) and the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the China Sugar and Liquor Yearbook, Chinese business information networks and literature review to examine the development of the wine industry in China.

To better understand how climate change will affect the global wine industry, we explore the structural relationship between climate change and vineyards. We attempt to analyze the possible benefits (opportunities) and harms (challenges) of climate change for the Chinese wine industry based on a number of indicators of both climate variables (temperature, accumulated heat, precipitation, water resource, and frost-free period) and climate events (drought, flood, extreme rainstorm, fog, and hail). For the whole country, secondary data are mainly obtained from three sources: 1. Literature review of studies in China; 2. Institutes and organizations, such as the China Meteorological Administration, the National Bureau of Statistics of China and the World Bank; and 3. Government reports and bulletins, such as the Ningxia Statistical Yearbook and the China Flood and Drought Management. For the primary wine-producing provinces, qualitative analyses are made by literature review of Chinese studies.

WINE INDUSTRY IN CHINA

China has a 6,000-year history of grape growing and a 2,000-year history of wine making (Qiu et al., 2013). The Chinese wine history can be traced back to the Han Dynasty when wine was introduced from central Asia. Grapes were planted and wine was produced in the Yellow River region in the northeast (Liu F. and Murphy, 2007). The first Chinese company, Changyu, was established in 1892 in the coastal city of Yantai in Shandong Province (Mitry et al., 2009).

Regionally, China has a large geographical size and distinct topographic situations including grassland areas and semi-arid plateau in the north, oasis and deserts in the northwest, semi-humid basin in the center, forests and plains in the northeast, high-altitude plateau in the southwest and humid coastal areas in the southeast. Vineyards for wine making are widely distributed across the Chinese territory and face a variety of geographical and climatic conditions (Figure 1). The main wine-producing provinces are Xinjiang, Yunnan, Henan, the Central Region including Ningxia, Gansu and Shaanxi, the Bohai Bay Region including Shandong, Hebei and Tianjin, and the Northeast Region including Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The Yantai Region of Shandong (1987) and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (2012) are involved with the OIV as observers. Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted wine grape in China with more than 20,000 ha followed by Chardonnay, Cabernet Franc, Syrah, and Pinot (Li H., Li and Yang, 2009).

China’s domestic wine production has grown dramatically since the ‘reform and opening up’ policy in 1978 (Figure 1). According to the OIV, in 2014 China had the eighth largest global wine grape production and the largest global grape production. China has overtaken France as the country with the second largest vineyard area (table grape, wine grape and dried grape) after Spain. In 2015, China had the world’s second largest vineyard area (table grape, wine grape and dried grape) and the world’s eighth largest wine production (Table 1) (OIV, 2016). Even though the total vineyard area of China is now the second largest in the world, only 10% are for wine production (Decanterchina, 2016). Hence, further vineyard expansion for wine grape could be expected considering the huge market demand and the vast suitable territory of China.

Figure 1. Primary wine-producing provinces and wine production of China. Source: China Sugar and Liquor Yearbook, 2011; Askci, 2015; National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2015.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WINE PRODUCTION

The sensitivity of wine production to changing climate factors will pose significant effects on yields and quality, ultimately impacting prices and revenues (Bardaji and Iraizoz, 2015). The decrease in suitable grape planting areas will adversely affect the quantity and quality of wine grapes produced (IPCC, 2014). Figure 2 illustrates the structural relationships between climate change and the wine production process. Vineyard location and climate variables have an immediate impact on grape quality and quantity. The effects of climate variables become apparent during the wine making and the wine storage period. Over the long term, vineyards could be relocated as owners seek more suitable climate conditions in order to maximize grape/wine quantity and quality.

Figure 2. Climate change and the wine production process. Source: Own elaboration.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

Even though a multitude of individual climate factors have impacts on viticulture, temperature and water supply are the most important factors (Schultz and Jones, 2010).

Temperature plays a key role in viticulture. Each specific grape cultivar has its own range of optimal growing season temperatures, which determine the climate-maturity ripening potential (Table 2) (Jones, 2007). In North China, when the average annual minimum temperature is below -15°C, it is necessary to adopt the soil-burying method to prevent Vitis vinifera from the damage of winter frost, and approximately 90% of the current vineyards in China need soil-burying (Wang S. et al., 2015). The Soil-Burying Line of China indicating areas with average annual minimum temperature below -15°C and requiring soil-burying in winter includes Shandong, Jiangsu, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet from east to west (Li H. et al., 2007b; Li H., Wang et al., 2007). Soil-burying could lead to increased labor intensity and production cost (Zhang J. et al., 2013).

Grapevine growth is initiated by a prolonged temperature above 10°C in spring (Jones et al., 2005; Holland and Smit, 2014). The sum of mean daily temperature from 1st April to 31st October in the northern hemisphere is an indicator of heat available for wine grape growing defined as the Sum of Average Temperature over the same period (SAT) in viticulture (Jones and Davis, 2000; Szymanowski et al., 2007; Green and Szymanowski, 2012) (Table 2). Another indicator of heat available for viticulture is the Effective Accumulated Temperature (EAT) or the Growing Degree Days (GDD) which is the sum of the temperature value between mean daily temperature and 10°C from 1st April to 31st October in the northern hemisphere (Amerine and Winkler, 1944; Li H., Li and Yang, 2009; Green and Szymanowski, 2012) (Table 2). Currently in China, accumulated temperatures are mainly used in viticulture climatic zoning studies (Li H. et al., 2007b).

Water availability is a limiting factor for the development of viticulture (De la Fuente et al., 2016). Vine grapes need a suitable amount of water during the growing period. In some cases, excessive rainfall can damage vine roots and grapes and cause floods, while in dry areas additional water supply may be provided by irrigation.

Spring frost will damage the grape buds and affect grape yield and quality; autumn frost will affect carbohydrate synthesis and reduce the cold tolerance ability of grapevine in winter (Li H., Wang et al., 2007). The choice of wine grape planting area is also related to the Frost-Free Period (FFP), which is usually defined as the number of consecutive days between the last day with a temperature below 0°C in spring and the first day with a temperature below 0°C in autumn (Wolf and Boyer, 2003; Li H. et al., 2007b). The length of the FFP is often defined by the frost timing in the spring and fall and corresponds to approximately 160-200 days in the vast majority of the world’s viticulture regions (Wolf and Boyer, 2003; Jones, 2005). Sufficient FFP is needed in the processes of budburst, flowering, grape ripening, nutrient accumulation and grape frost resistance in winter (Wolf and Boyer, 2003; Li H. et al., 2007b; Holland and Smit, 2014) (Table 2).

In viticulture, we should also consider climate events such as extreme rainstorms, flood, drought, fog and hail which will affect grapevine production. Droughts and extreme rainstorms will have negative impacts on wine grape yield (Castex et al., 2015); hail in summer will damage the shoots, leaves and fruits and affect the yield and quality (Li H. et al., 2007a).

TEMPERATURE AND ANNUAL ACCUMULATED TEMPERATURE

In the past century, China has experienced obvious impacts of global warming in annual mean temperature (10.1°C in 2014) (Figure 3). Data from 156 meteorological stations show that in 2010 the average temperature was 1.23°C higher than in 1950 (Li R.L. and Shu, 2013). The surface temperature in eastern China has increased by 1.52°C during 1909-2010 (Zhao P. et al., 2014). The temperature increase varied based on seasonal and geographical factors. The warming rate in winter was 0.04°C per year while it was 0.01°C per year in summer, and the north warmed more quickly than the south during 1960-2010 (Piao et al., 2010). According to data from 520 meteorological stations in China, during 1951-2005 both the accumulated temperature (≥10°C, ≥0°C) and its value increased (Miao et al., 2009). The annual effective accumulated temperature (≥10°C), which is the sum of the temperature value between mean daily temperature and 10°C for the whole year, generally has an increasing trend after 1985 (Liu S.H. et al., 2013). Since the 1990s, the whole Soil-Burying Line of China, which indicates areas with average annual minimum temperature below -15°C and with the necessity to have vine soil-burying in winter, has advanced northward, leaving vast areas (including some part of Xinjiang) suitable for viticulture without the necessity to have vine burying in winter (Li H., Wang et al., 2007).

From the literature review (Table 3), we can observe a trend of increasing temperature in eight wine-producing provinces (Ningxia, Xinjiang, Shandong, Tianjin, Jilin, Gansu, Hebei, Shaanxi) and an increasing number of days with specific annual active accumulated temperature (≥0°C, ≥5°C, ≥10°C) in seven wine-producing provinces (Ningxia, Xinjiang, Shaanxi, Heilongjiang, Gansu, Hebei, Tianjin) over a long period (more than 40 years). Although the literature review does not cover all of the wine-producing provinces, we can see the correlation with the national trend of increasing annual mean temperature (Figure 3). These changes may have caused possible benefits such as an increase in the number of areas suitable for wine grape planting and possible harms such as a reduction in grape and wine quality (Table 3).

Figure 3. Annual mean temperature of China. Source: China Meteorological Administration, 2015.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

PRECIPITATION AND WATER SCARCITY

The precipitation trends have shown distinctive regional and seasonal variations, but there has been a general decreasing trend throughout the entire country. From 1960 to 2010, three periods of precipitation transitions occurred in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, and the increase and decrease of precipitation moved along with the latitude (Zhao H.R., 2013; Wang Y.J. and Yan, 2014). While southern China has experienced an increasing trend of rainfall in summer and winter, northeastern China has experienced a significant decrease of precipitation in summer and winter (Piao et al., 2010; Li R.L. and Shu, 2013).

Approximately 98% of the surface water in China is recharged by precipitation (Jiang, 2009). From precipitation data of the primary wine regions in 2010 (Figure 4), we can see that the majority of regions have lower precipitation amounts than the national level. In Ningxia, Gansu and Xinjiang, the annual mean precipitation is considerably less than the national level. Changes in precipitation have been observed over long periods (more than 40 years) in six wine-producing provinces (Ningxia, Tianjin, Shandong, Gansu, Shaanxi, Hebei) with decreasing annual amount of precipitation or decreasing annual precipitation days (Table 4). These changes may have positive impacts, such as fewer pests and diseases. However, the changes may also have negative impacts, such as increased drought frequency and increased irrigation cost (Table 4).

In 2013, China ranked 102nd of 176 nations and regions with 2083 cubic meter water resource per capita (World Bank, 2015). This ranking was lower than in many wine-producing countries (Figure 4). With the exception of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Xinjiang and Yunnan, the available water per capita in the other main wine-producing regions is lower than the national average. Xinjiang has vast amounts of water stored in glaciers. Yunnan has an uneven distribution of precipitation, and irrigation is difficult due to the obstruction of high mountains, all of which lead to water scarcity.

Table 4. Precipitation change in Chinese wine-producing provinces.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

FROST-FREE PERIOD

Chinese studies indicate that between 1964 and 2003, in China, the acreage with a FFP above 160 increased significantly, especially between 1984 and 2003, while the First Frost Day (FFD) was delayed and the Last Frost Day (LFD) was advanced (Li H., Wang et al., 2007; Li H., Wang et al., 2009). The Yongning County, which is bordered by the Yellow River to the west and the Helan Mountain to the east, is one of the main wine-producing regions of Ningxia. Meteorological observations between 1952 and 2013 in Yongning County indicate that the FFP had an increasing trend (164 days in 1952 and 189 days in 2013) and the FFD was delayed (26th Sep in 1952 and 16th Oct in 2013) (Figure 5).

In eight wine-producing provinces (Shandong, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Xinjiang, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Tianjin), studies had indicated the increasing trend of FFP over 50 years, delayed FFD, and advanced LFD (Table 5). This finding may provide an opportunity for cultivation of more grape varieties and lead to more areas suitable for viticulture. However, grape quality and grape yield may be affected (Hadarits et al., 2010; Fraga et al., 2012) (Table 5).

Figure 5. Frost-Free Periods and First Frost Day change in Yongning County, Ningxia, 1952-2013. Source: Ningxia Statistical Yearbook, 1985-2013.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

EXTREME CLIMATE EVENTS

With the changing climate, there has been an increasing trend in periods of remarkable drought and flood, leading to challenges to agriculture and the Chinese wine industry. The most significant droughts appeared in 1978 and 2000, strongly affecting the crop production in China. Figure 6 indicates total agricultural crop area covered (crop yield loss >10%) and affected (crop yield loss >30%) by drought and flood in China from 1950 to 2014. In the 1990s and 2000s, strong floods caused by heavy rains impacted the entire country. In 1991, 1998, 2003, and 2010, serious floods hit China, leaving vast crop areas affected by flood (Figure 6).

Regionally, increased incidence of extreme rainstorms in Ningxia, Hebei and Xinjiang over a long period may have alleviated the drought problem but may have also increased the risk of flood damage and vineyard destruction (Table 6). Due to the increased severity of drought conditions in five wine-producing provinces (Ningxia, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Henan, Yunnan), an increased investment in irrigation infrastructure may be required.

In Ningxia, Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Yunnan, changes in the density and frequency of fog over more than 40 years may have impacted the growth process of grapes. In Ningxia, Tianjin, Hebei and Yunnan, the decreasing frequency of hail may have reduced the damage to vineyards.

Figure 6. Crop area covered/affected by drought/flood in China. Source: China Flood and Drought Management, 2009; National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2015.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR THE CHINESE WINE INDUSTRY

Adaptation strategies can reduce the impacts of climate change and are a major challenge for viticulturists for the coming decades (Van Leeuwen et al., 2007; Iglesias et al., 2012; Ren et al., 2013; Ollat and Touzard, 2014b). Climate change adaptation can be planned at the regional, national, and international level. We provide recommendations to the wine industry for adaptation strategies based on current Chinese climate change policies and studies of wine and adaptation (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Adaptation strategies for the Chinese wine industry. Source: Own elaboration.

Save View full size Expand inline Collapse inline

CONCLUSIONS

In the last several years, domestic wine production has experienced a dramatic increase in China, boosted by rising consumption and a favorable economic situation. This increase faces important future challenges, a number of them emerging from the impacts of climate change, which may affect the quantity and quality of the wine production and even the vineyard location.

The analysis of the climate trend in China, which is focused on variables with climate relevance to viticulture, exhibits inconsistent effects, and confirms the relevance of the changes in the primary wine-producing regions.

The literature suggests a general tendency of increasing temperatures and accumulated temperature, water scarcity with higher frequency of extreme events and increasing number of frost-free days, all of which will bring both challenges and opportunities to the young Chinese wine industry.

The identified effects indicate the need for more research at the regional level for an accurate assessment of climate change impact on the Chinese wine industry and a proper design of adaptation measures, considering the specific needs and characteristics of wine production. These specific adaptation measures have to be implemented under the national framework of climate change adaptation and need to consider the coordination of policy, financial, technical, institutional and collaborative strategies.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the China Scholarship Council (CSC) and the research support from the Research Center for the Management of Agricultural and Environmental Risks (CEIGRAM) of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM).

References

• Askci, 2015. China Business Intelligence Network. http://www.askci.com/ (accessed December 2015)
• Bardaji I. and Iraizoz B., 2015. Uneven responses to climate and market influencing the geography of high-quality wine production in Europe. Reg. Environ. Change, 15, 79-92. doi:10.1007/s10113-014-0623-y
• Battaglini A., Barbeau G., Bindi M. and Badeck F.W., 2009. European winegrowers’ perceptions of climate change impact and options for adaptation. Reg. Environ. Change, 9, 61-73. doi:10.1007/s10113-008-0053-9
• Bai Q.F., Li X.M. and Zhu L., 2013. The changes of the frost -free periods from 1961 to 2010 and its impact on apple industry in Shaanxi province. J. Arid Land Resour.  Environ., 27, 65-70 (in Chinese).
• Cai X.L., Ye D.X., Li X., Zhang C.J. and Wang N., 2013. Analysis of temporal-spatial variation characteristics of drought in Shaanxi Province based on compound meteorological drought index (CI). Agric. Res.  Arid Area, 31, 1-8 (in Chinese).
• Castex V., Tejeda E.M. and Beniston M., 2015. Water availability, use and governance in the wine producing region of Mendoza, Argentina. Environ. Sci. Policy, 48, 1-8. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2014.12.008
• Chen S., Chen X.G. and Xu J.T., 2015. Impacts of climate change on agriculture: Evidence from China. J. Environ. Econ. Manag., 76, 105-124. doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2015.01.005
• Chen X.G., Conway D., Zheng G.F. and Chen X.J., 2008a. Trends of extreme temperature in Ningxia during 1961 and 2004. Adv. Clim. Change Res., 4, 73-77 (in Chinese).
• Chen X.G., Conway D., Chen X.J. and Zheng G.F., 2008b. Trends of extreme precipitation events in Ningxia during 1961-2005. Adv. Clim. Change Res., 4, 156-160 (in Chinese).
• China Flood & Drought Management 2009 (in Chinese). Publication of China Water & Power Press, 2009.
• China Meteorological Administration 2015. http://www.cma.gov.cn/ (accessed October, 2015).
• China’s National Climate Change Programme 2007 (in Chinese). Report of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), June 2007. http://en.ndrc.gov.cn/newsrelease/200706/P020070604561191006823.pdf.
• China’s National Plan on Climate Change 2014-2020  (in Chinese). Report of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), November 2014. http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/201411/W020141104584717807138.pdf.
• China's Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change 2008 (in Chinese). Report of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), October 2008. http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/WebSite/CCChina/UpFile/File419.pdf.
• China's Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change 2012 (in Chinese). Report of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), November 2012. http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/WebSite/CCChina/UpFile/File1324.pdf.
• China's Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change 2015 (in Chinese). Report of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), November 2015. http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/archiver/ccchinacn/UpFile/Files/Default/20151120095809029882.pdf.
• China's Policies and Actions on Climate Change 2014 (in Chinese). Report of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), November 2014. http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/archiver/ccchinaen/UpFile/Files/Default/20141126133727751798.pdf.
• China Sugar&Liquor Yearbook 2011 (in Chinese). Publication of China National Association for Liquor and Spirits Circulation, December 2011. http://tongji.cnki.net/kns55/navi/HomePage.aspx?id=N2012070054&name=YZGTJ&floor=1
• China Water Conservation Technology Policy Outline 2005 (in Chinese). Announcement of National Development and Reform Commission of the People's Republic of China, Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China, Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China, Ministry of Construction of the People's Republic of China, Ministry of Agriculture of the People's Republic of China, April 2005. http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan036722.pdf.
• De Orduña R.M., 2010.  Climate change associated effects on grape and wine quality and production. Food Res. Int., 43, 1844-1855. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2010.05.001
• Deng Z.Y., Zhang Q., Wang R.Y., Zhao H., Xu J.F., Liu M.C., Zhao H.Y. and Yao Y.B., 2012. The Response of Plant Diseases and Pests to Climatic Warmer-drying and Its Adaptive Technique in the Northwest China. Adv. Earth Sci., 27, 1281-1287 (in Chinese).
• Dong X.G., Gu W.Z., Meng X.X. and  Liu H.B., 2014. Change features of precipitation events in Shandong Province from 1961 to 2010. Acta  Geogr. Sin. , 69, 661-671 (in Chinese).
• Duchene E., 2016. How can grapevine genetics contribute to the adaptation to climate change? J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin, 50. doi:10.20870/oeno-one.2016.50.3.98
• Gao X., Wang H., Yu C.W., Dai X.G. and Shi L.H., 2009.  Analysis of Extreme Precipitation Events Change for Hebei Province. Meteor. Mon., 35, 10-15 (in Chinese).
• Hannah L., Roehrdanz P.R., Ikegami M., Shepard A.V., Shaw M.R., Tabor G., Zhi L., Marquet P.A. and Hijmans R.J., 2013.  Climate change, wine, and conservation. In: Dickinson RE, ed. Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences of the United States of America; 2013; Washington, USA. doi:10.1073/pnas.1210127110
• Holland T. and Smit B., 2014.  Recent climate change in the Prince Edward County winegrowing region, Ontario, Canada: implications for adaptation in a fledgling wine industry. Reg. Environ. Change, 14, 1109-1121. doi:10.1007/s10113-013-0555-y
• Hu Q., Pan X.B., Zhang D., Yang N., Li Q.Y. and Shao C.X., 2015. Variation of Temperature and Frost-free Period in Different Time Scales in Northeast China. Chinese J. Agrometeorol., 36, 1-8 (in Chinese).
• Iglesias A., Quiroga S., Moneo M. and Garrote L., 2012. From climate change impacts to the development of adaptation strategies: Challenges for agriculture in Europe. Clim. Change, 112, 143-168. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0344-x
• IPCC, 2013. Observations: Atmosphere and Surface. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner GK, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM (eds) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp 159-254.
• IPCC, 2014. Food security and food production systems. In: Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp 485-533.
• Ji S.T., Yang M., Ji Y.H., Wang P., Jiang L.X., Zhu H.X. and Yan P., 2009. Change of accumulated temperature and evolution trends of accumulated temperature zone over last 45 years in Heilongjiang Province. Chinese J. Agrometeorol., 30, 133-137 (in Chinese).
• Jiang Y., 2009.  China’s water scarcity. J. Environ. Manage., 90, 3185-3196. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.04.016
• Jones G.V., 2007. Climate change: observations, projections, and general implications for viticulture and wine production. Paper presented at the Climate and Viticulture Congress, International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV), Zaragoza, 10-14 April 2007.
• Jones G.V., White M.A., Cooper O.R. and Storchmann K., 2005. Climate change and global wine industry.  Clim. Change, 73, 319-343. doi:10.1007/s10584-005-4704-2
• Li C., Liu D.Y. and Huang H., 2010. Characteristics of precipitation and precipitation days from 1958 to 2007 in Tianjin. J. Meteorol.  Environ., 26, 8-11(in Chinese).
• Li H., Lan Y.F. and Wang H., 2011a. Study on viticultural climatic zoning in Jingjintang area. J. Northwest Agric. Forest.  U. (Nat Sci Ed), 39, 159-166 (in Chinese).
• Li H. and Meng J., 2009. Climatic Zoning Indexes and the Viticultural Climatic Zoning in Shaanxi Province. Sci. Tech. Rev., 27, 78-83 (in Chinese).
• Li H., Wang H., Fang Y.L. and Huo X.S., 2007a. Study on the Viticulture Climatic Zoning in China (I). Sci. Tech. Rev., 25, 63-68 (in Chinese).
• Li H., Wang H., Fang Y.L. and Huo X.S., 2007b. Study on the Viticulture Climatic Zoning in China (II). Sci. Tech. Rev., 25, 57-64 (in Chinese).
• Li H., Wang H., You J., Huo X.S. and Wang Y.Q., 2007c. Relationship between frost indexes and viticulture zoning in China in recent 45 years. Sci. Tech. Rev., 25, 16-22 (in Chinese).
• Li H., Wang H. and Wang H., 2011b. Study on the viticultural climatic zoning of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Sci. Tech. Rev., 29, 70-73 (in Chinese).
• Li H., Wang Y.J., Meng J., Wang H., You J., Huo X.S. and Wang Y.Q., 2009. The effect of climate change on the climatic zoning for wine grapes in China. Acta. Hortic. Sin., 36, 313-320 (in Chinese).
• Li J., Yan X.Y. and Wang Y., 2010. Variations of frost under the background of climate change in Liaoning Province in recent 50 years. Meteor. Mon., 36, 38-45 (in Chinese).
• Li R.L. and Shu G., 2013. Impacts of climate Change on agriculture and adaptive strategies in China. J. Integr. Agr., 12, 1402-1408. doi:10.1016/S2095-3119(13)60552-3
• Li X., Zhen G.F., Na L. and Wang S.Y., 2013. Analysis on spatial and temporal changes of extreme precipitation events in Ningxia in recent 50 years. J. Anhui Agric. Sci., 41, 3533-3535, 3578 (in Chinese).
• Li Y.B., 2015.  Impact of Global Climate Change on European Wine Industry and the Revelation to China. Liquor-making Sci. Tech., 5, 126-129 (in Chinese).
• Liang X., Feng J.M., Zhang Z. and Zheng G.F., 2007. A study on drought climate change and its causes. Arid Land Resour.  Environ., 21, 68-74 (in Chinese).
• Liu D.X., Dong A.X., Zhang P.L. and Fei X.L., 2005. Impact of Climate Warming on Agriculture in Gansu Province. Prog. Geogr., 24, 49-58 (in Chinese).
• Liu F.  and Murphy J., 2007. A qualitative study of Chinese wine consumption and purchasing Implications for Australian wines. Int. J. Wine Bus. Res., 19, 98-113. doi:10.1108/17511060710758669
• Liu F.Y., Xiao S.R., Liu H. and Mu Z.Y., 2014. Research of Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Hebei Region. Geogr. Geo-Inf.  Sci., 30, 122-126 (in Chinese).
• Liu S.M., Gao H. and Li Z.F., 2009. Impacts of Climate Warming on Crops Planting Structure in Tianjin. Chinese J. Agrometeorol., 30, 42-46 (in Chinese).
• Liu S.H., Yan D.H., Weng B.S., Xing Z.Q. and Wang G., 2013. Spatiotemporal Evolution of Effective Accumulated Temperature ≥10 °Cin China in Recent 50 Years. Arid Zone Res.,  30, 689-696 (in Chinese).                              
• Ma Y., Ren Y.Y., Chen C.Y. and Chu C.J., 2005. Change Characteristic of Fog and Analysis on Weather Process of Heavy Fog in Xinjiang in Nearly 40 Years. Arid Land Geogr., 28 (4):474-478 (in Chinese).
• Miao Q.L., Yuan Y., Wang Y. and Duan C.F., 2009. Impact of Climate Warming on the distribution of China’s Thermal Resources. J. Nat. Resour., 24(5):934-944 (in Chinese).
• Min J.J., Cao X.Z., Duan Y.H., Liu H.Z. and Wang S.G., 2012. Analysis on the Climate Characteristics of Hail and Its Break in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei During Recent 30 Years. Meteorol. Mon.,  38, 189-196 (in Chinese).
• Mitry D.J., Smith D.E. and Jenster P.V., 2009.  China’s role in global competition in the wine Industry: A new contestant and future trends. Int. J. Wine Res., 1, 19-2.    
• Mozell M.R. and Thach L., 2014. The impact of climate change on the global wine industry: Challenges &solutions. Wine Econ. Policy,   3, 81-89. doi:10.1016/j.wep.2014.08.001
• National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China, 2015. National Data. http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ (accessed May, 2015).
• Ningxia Statistical Yearbook 1985-2013 (in Chinese). Publication of China Statistics Press.1985-2013. http://tongji.cnki.net/kns55/navi/HomePage.aspx?id=N2013100032&name=YNXTJ&floor=1.
• OIV, 2015. International Organisation of Vine and Wine. http://www.oiv.int/ (Accessed June, 2015).
• Pan S.K., Zhang M.J., Wang B.L. and  Ma X.N., 2013. Changes of the First Frost Dates，Last Frost Dates and Duration of Frost-free Season in Xinjiang during the Period of 1960 -2011. Arid Zone Res., 30, 735-742 (in Chinese).
• Piao S.L., Ciais P., Huang Y., Shen Z., Peng S.S., Li J.S., Zhou L.P., Liu H.Y., Ma Y.C., Ding Y.H., Friedlingstein P., Liu C.Z., Tan K., Yu Y.Q., Zhang T.Y. and Fang J.Y., 2010. The impacts of climate change on water resources and agriculture in China. Nature , 467, 43-51. doi:10.1038/nature09364
• Pu Z.C., Zhang S.Q., Li J.L., Xu W.X. and Wang M.Q., 2013.  Spatiotemporal Change of Duration and Accumulated Temperature of Temperature ≥ 0 ℃ in Xinjiang in Recent 50 Years. Arid Zone Res.,  30, 781-788 (in Chinese).
• Pu Z.C., Zhang S.Q., Li J.L., Xu W.X., Wang M.Q. and Yili H., 2014. Spatial-temporal Variation of Heat Resources in Winter of Xinjiang near 50 years. Agr. Res. Arid Areas, 322, 40-46 (in Chinese).
• Qiu H.Q. Z., Yuan J.X., Ye B. H.B. and Hung K., 2013. Wine tourism phenomena in China: an emerging market. Int. J.  Contemp.  Hosp. Manage., 25, 1115-1134. doi:10.1108/IJCHM-06-2012-0087
• Regulation on the protection of Eastern Foot of Helan Mountain Wine Region in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 2012 (in Chinese). Gazette of Ningxia Government, May 2012. http://61.181.156.156:8080/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=16&CurRec=2&DbCode=cjfz&dbname=CJFZLAST&filename=NXZB201224003.
• Ren Y.J., Cui J.X., Wan S.Q., Liu M., Chen Z.H., Liao Y.F. and Wang J.J., 2013. Climate change impacts on central China and adaptation measures. Adv. Clim. Change Res., 4, 215-222. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1248.2013.215
• Resco P., Iglesias A., Bardaji I. and Sotes V., 2015. Exploring adaptation choices for grapevine regions in Spain. Reg. Environ. Change , 16, 979-993. doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0811-4
• Sang J.R., Liu Y.L. and Shu Z.L., 2007. Response of severe drought events in Ningxia to climate change during recent 44 years. J.  Desert. Res., 27, 878-882 (in Chinese).
• Scheme of Adaptation for Climate Change in Ningxia 2009 (in Chinese). Gazette of Ningxia Government, November 2009. http://wenku.baidu.com/link?url=oDcPd4zVYo-LTN7AMOrTcngFzvjzj3XDzvOTZqR6UowwGdsjwEtE82G1sv7uSLsrM1Hh_nN4ThStHG2z-hEUmtA9X2VbV2EYZlMi7cO1DrW.
• Schultz H.R. and Jones G.V., 2010. Climate induced historic and future changes in viticulture. J. Wine Res., 22, 137-145. doi:10.1080/09571264.2010.530098
• Shen X.J., Wu Z.F. and Du H.B., 2014. Characteristics of climatic change in semiarid region of western Jilin in recent 50a. J. Arid Land Resour.  Environ., 28, 190-196 (in Chinese).
• Sun G.L., Chen Y.M. and Li W.H., 2011.  Interannual and Interdecadal Variations of Extreme Hydrological Events and Response to Climate Change in Xinjiang. Sci. Geogr. Sinica, 31, 1389-1395 (in Chinese).
• Tan C.P., Yang J.P., Qin D.H. and Li M., 2014. Climatic background of persistent drought in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China. J.  Desert. Res., 34, 518-526 (in Chinese).
• Tao Y., Duan X., Duan C.C. and Duan W., 2011a. Change Characteristic of Yunnan Hail. Plateau Meteor., 30, 1108-1118 (in Chinese).
• Tao Y., Duan X., Duan C.C., Duan W. and Ren J.Z., 2011b. The change characteristics of fog in Yunnan during the nearly 50 years. J. Yunnan U., 33, 308-31643 (in Chinese).
• Tonietto J. and Carbonneau A., 2004. A multicriteria climatic classification system for grape-growing regions worldwide. Agr. Forest Meteorol., 124, 81-97. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2003.06.001
• Wang H., Wang L.G., Song H.H., Yan Y. and  Li H., 2010. Climatic zoning of grapevine in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Sci. Tech. Rev., 28, 21-24 (in Chinese).
• Wang H.Y., Gao H.J. and Zhang X., 2011. Analysis on the Climate Variation Characteristics of Frost in Shandong Province. J. Anhui Agri. Sci., 39, 9062-9063 (in Chinese).
• Wang Y.H., 2014. Analysis on Spatial and Temporal Variation Characteristics of Temperature and Precipitation in Shaanxi Province. J. Inner Mongolia For. Sci. Technol.,   40, 33-39 (in Chinese).
• Wang Y.J. and Yan F., 2014. Regional differentiation and decadal change of precipitation in China in 1960-2010. Prog.  Geogr., 33, 1354-1363 (in Chinese).
• Wang Y.R., Liao Y.C. and Mao M.C., 2011. Change of the accumulated temperature above 5 °C critical temperature in Shaanxi during past 48 years. Acta. Agric. Bor-Occident. Sin., 20, 201-206 (in Chinese).
• World Bank, 2015. World Bank Group, Data.  http://data.worldbank.org/ (accessed June, 2015)
• Wu Y.J., Li Y.E., Liu Y.T. and Huang Y., 2008. Changes of meteorological disasters and their impacts on grain crop yield in Ningxia. Chinese J. Agrometeorol., 29, 491-495 (in Chinese).
• Xiang L., Hao L.S., An Y.G., Zhang J. and Liu M.M., 2014. Time-spatial distribution and variational characteristics of rainfall in Hebei Province in 51 years. Arid Land Geogr., 37, 56-65 (in Chinese).
• Yang K. Sang J.R., Li Y.C., Su Z.S. and Chen X.J., 2012. Analysis of climatic and extreme features of hail in Ningxia in recent 50 years. J. Arid Meteorol., 30, 609-614 (in Chinese).
• Yzarra W., Sanabria J., Caceres H., Solis O. and Lhomme J.P., 2015. Impact of Climate Change on Some Grapevine Varieties Growth in Peru for Pisco Production. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin,49,103-112.
• Zhang H.F., Zhang K.X., Pan L.J. and Qian Q.R., 2013. Characteristics of Fog Spatial-Temporal Patterns and Atmospheric Circulation in Last 51 Years over Shaanxi Province. Meteorol. Sci. Technol., 41, 702-712(in Chinese). 
• Zhang H.W., Lin M.M., Xu M.H., Li Y.N., Feng X., Pang T. and  Sun J.Y., 2009. Impact and counter measures for climate warming on arid disaster in Henan. Meteorol Environ. Sci., 32, 239-241 (in Chinese).
• Zhang L., Zhang X.Y., Li H.Y., Yuan H.Y. and Wang J., 2013. Characteristics of frost-free days changes over Ningxia from 1961 to 2010. Ecol. Environ. Sci., 22, 801-805 (in Chinese).
• Zhang M.J., Wang B.L., Wei J.L., Wang S.J., Ma Q. and Li X.F., 2012.  Extreme event changes of air temperature in Ningxia in recent 50 years. J. Nat. Disaster, 21, 152-160 (in Chinese).
• Zhang S.P., Zhang X., Wang H.J., Xiang Z. and Du Z.L., 2011. Influence of Climate Change on Precipitation and Extreme Climate in Shandong Province. J. China Hydrol., 31, 62-65 (in Chinese).
• Zhang Z. and Lin L., 2008. Study on the accumulative temperature and the precipitation in the period of the accumulative temperature in Ningxia. Agric. Res. Arid Areas, 26, 231-234,239 (in Chinese).
• Zhao H.R., 2013. Temporal and spatial variations and transition of precipitation in China during 1960-2010. Trop. Geogr., 33, 414-419 (in Chinese).
• Zhao P., Jones P., Cao L.J., Yan Z.W., Zha S.Y., Zhu Y.N., Yu Y. and Tang G.L., 2014. Trend of surface air temperature in eastern China and associated large-scale climate variability over the last 100 years. J. Clim., 27, 4693-4703. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00397.1
• Zhao X.L., Li L.G., Jia Q.Y., Xie Y.B. and Zhou G.S., 2009. Analysis of main agrometeorological disasters from 1988 to 2007 in Liaoning Province. J. Meteorol.  Environ., 25, 33-37 (in Chinese).
• Zhou C.F., Chen N. and Zhang G.P., 2010. Temporal and spatial distribution characteristic and forecast methods research of fog in Ningxia. J Anhui Agri. Sci., 38, 17074-17078 (in Chinese).