Introduction

For decades, natural wine (NW) has been a marginal phenomenon and a niche market with few producers and consumers. Since 2010, however, NW has emerged as a fast-growing sector in Europe and increasingly elsewhere, from Georgia (Svanidze and Costa-Font, 2023) to New Zealand (Urdapilleta et al., 2021), California (Maykish et al., 2021) or South Africa (Chazal, 2023). The definition of NW remains largely contested, with different certification bodies and natural winemakers' associations advocating different regulations, such as AVN and SAINS in France, PVN in Spain or Vinnatur, VAN or Viniveri in Italy (Alonso González and Parga-Dans, 2018; Fabbrizzi et al., 2021). As a result of this controversy, consumers tend to confuse NW with wines without sulphites, as well as organic and biodynamic (Jones and Grandjean, 2018; Vecchio et al., 2021). However, on March 25 2020, NW obtained legal recognition for the first time in France under the designation vin méthode nature, opening the way for similar initiatives worldwide. This accreditation has been created by a trade union in collaboration with the French Directorate-General for Competition, Consumer Affairs and Prevention of Fraud (see Sáenz-Navajas et al., 2024 for more details). According to this regulation, NW must be produced from organic or biodynamic grapes and without additives in the cellar. Minimal amounts of SO₂ (< 30 mg L^-1) can be employed only before bottling, and this practice must be indicated on the label (Alonso González et al., 2022). Although there are no official statistics on NW production and consumption, in recent years, the world wine market has shown an increase in the consumption of wines with sustainability attributes, whether organic, natural or biodynamic (Capitello and Sirieix, 2019; Migliore et al., 2020; Vecchio et al., 2021). The high demand for these products is related to increased consumer awareness of environmental and human health issues, as well as an increased public awareness that natural products are the solution to the problems of natural resource depletion and food security (Alonso González and Parga-Dans, 2020; Pomarici and Vecchio, 2019).

Despite the commercial success of NW, consumers and experts alike remain uncertain about the sensory attributes and overall intrinsic quality of this new wine category (Parga-Dans et al., 2023). Wine quality perception is complex and multidimensional. It results from the interaction between the product's characteristics and the characteristics of consumers, such as origin, involvement and expectations (Sáenz-Navajas et al., 2016a; Urdapilleta et al., 2021). Moreover, the perception of quality results from intrinsic and extrinsic wine dimensions (Charters and Pettigrew, 2007; Parga-Dans et al., 2022). Intrinsic dimensions are linked to the physical part of the product and its organoleptic properties such as aroma, colour or mouthfeel. Extrinsic dimensions refer to properties that are not part of the product, such as the region of origin, awards or the package design (Sáenz-Navajas et al., 2020). Moreover, consumer perceptions often differ from expert judgments (Sáenz-Navajas et al., 2016a). It has been shown that the production philosophy also influences wine perception, with most studies focusing on comparisons between organic and conventional wines, and some of them including biodynamic wines (Cravero, 2019; Picchi et al., 2020; Schäufele and Hamm, 2017), but very few on NW.

Wines with no sulphites added are a further emerging category that can be confounded with NW by non-specialised consumers. Indeed, the virtual absence of added sulphites is one of the most important features of NW. This is particularly visible because SO₂ is the only oenological input explicitly mentioned in the French label of Vin Methode Nature or the acronym of the S.A.I.N.S. association (Sans Aucun Intrant Ni Sulfite). The category of wines with no added sulphites has been studied in recent years in terms of consumers' behaviour and sensory properties (Amato et al., 2017). Concerning consumers' acceptance of these wines, several marketing studies found little global effect of the “no-sulphites-added” label on the willingness to pay of Italian and Spanish consumers (Amato et al., 2017) and U.S. consumers (Costanigro et al., 2014). These studies showed that only consumers prone to headaches related to sulphite content had a higher willingness to pay for non-sulphited wines. Concerning the sensory properties of wines with no added sulphites, a recent study on Bordeaux red wines has shown that the wines without SO₂ addition presented a much higher frequency of defects than those with SO₂, mostly oxidation and volatile phenols (Pelonnier-Magimel et al., 2020).

Regarding NW, the literature is recent and generally scarce. Several qualitative studies explored consumers' mental and social representations of NW compared to other sustainable wine categories. Some of them reveal some confusion among consumers between organic, biodynamic and natural wine categories (Ginon et al., 2014; Alonso González et al., 2022) as well as a lack of awareness of NW (Moscovici and Reed, 2018; Fuentes et al., 2021). A recent study on Italian consumers showed that NWs obtained a lower willingness to pay than organic wines and that the drivers of the preferences were not related to the sensory characteristics of the wines but rather to their naturalness and healthiness (Vecchio et al., 2023).

Urdapilleta et al. (2021) explored social representations of conventional, organic and natural wine in experts and novices from France and New Zealand. The results showed a cultural effect on the content of participants' representations of NW. New Zealanders, regardless of expertise level, provided several negative descriptors (unpredictable, cloudy, flat, bad, trend, orange, expensive), while no negative descriptor was attached to NWs by French participants. In a qualitative survey with Italian consumers, Fabrizzi et al. (2021) showed that besides the expected attributes linked to health and environment, consumers elicited some sensory properties they expect NW to have, such as the distinctiveness (typical, peculiar, unique), the acidity (harsh, not attractive) and intense flowery and fruity aromas. In the same vein, Sáenz-Navajas et al. (2024) recently showed that Spanish winemakers had quite negative attitudes towards the sensory quality of NW but positive ones regarding some extrinsic dimensions of NW, such as social identity, ecology, health, or artisanal production.

From a marketing point of view, Galati et al. (2019) showed that Italian millennials are willing to pay a premium price for NW. This result is not in agreement with previous studies on sulphite-free wines (Amato et al., 2017; Costanigro et al., 2014), suggesting that for Italian millennials, sulphites are not the only issue when it comes to NW. Rather, being environmentally and socially sustainable is considered more important.

To the best of our current knowledge, only the recent study by Sáenz-Navajas et al. (2023) has explored the sensory aspects of NW. The authors focused on Spanish white wines and studied the sensory characteristics of a sample set where half of the samples were conventional wines (CW) and the other half were NW. Three sub-sets, characterised by different between-samples variability, were created and assessed using free-sorting tasks with subsequent group descriptions. Moreover, conventional oenological parameters, volatile compounds and toxic molecules were quantified in the samples. The sensory results showed that no clear separation between conventional and NW was observed for three sub-sets. However, a global analysis indicated that 70 % of the self-defined NWs were associated with various aromatic defects related to their higher content in 4-ethylphenols and volatile acidity. The remaining NWs were fault-free and clustered among the conventional samples.

The present study moves forward from the study by Sáenz-Navajas et al. (2023) in several ways. First, it focuses on Spanish red wines. Second, it links the sensory characteristics of the samples and their conventional/natural status to sensory perceived quality by experts. Third, it explores the information effect of knowing the conventional/natural status of a sample on experts' quality assessment. Finally, it examines the effect of experts' culture on their quality assessment. This study hypothesised that NW would be discernible from CW from a sensory point of view, possibly due to the presence of wine faults, as suggested by previous studies. Moreover, we hypothesised that quality scores would differ between CW and NW regardless of the culture of the taster. Since France is more advanced than Spain in terms of NW production, consumption and labelling for NW, we expected cultural differences in the quality assessments. Finally, we also expected an effect of the information on the quality assessments, as well as an interaction between culture and information since different cultures could have different ways of handling the information about wine types.

Materials and methods

Results and discussion

1. Sensory similarity and description

The MDS on the co-occurrence matrix of the Garnacha Tinta wines yielded a satisfying three-dimensional solution (stress value = 0.137). An automatic partition into two groups suggested a fair separation between NW and CW. Indeed, only one CW was found in the NW group, and conversely, only one NW was found in the CW group (Figure 1a). However, no significant differences between NW and CW were found in the citation frequencies of the descriptors generated during the sorting task.

As for the previous sorting task, a three-dimensional solution was also obtained from the sorting task of Tempranillo Tinto wines (stress value = 0.116). The dendrogram was automatically partitioned into three groups, and, in this case, the separation between NW and CW was not clear since all three clusters had NW and CW samples (Figure 1b). Despite this apparent lack of separation, Chi-square tests showed that NWs were significantly more associated with off-odours (sum of citations of “faulty”, “animal” and “acetic acid/ethyl acetate”) (χ² = 9.0; p = 0.0027) than CWs. NWs also tended to be less associated with berry aromas (χ² = 3.2; p = 0.074) than their conventional counterparts.

Concerning the sorting task with multiple varietals, the MDS offered an acceptable three-dimensional solution as well (stress value = 0.144). Two clusters emerged from the automatic partition of the HCA (Figure 1c). The separation between CW and NW was almost perfect and was consistent with the citation frequency of “acetic acid/ ethyl acetate”, which was significantly higher for NW (χ² = 4.76; p = 0.029). Moreover, CW tended to be more associated with “berry” (χ² = 3.27; p = 0.071) and “vegetal” aromas (χ² = 3.0; p = 0.083).

Figure 1. Dendrograms obtained from the first three dimensions of the Garnacha Tinta (a), Tempranillo Tinto (b) and several varieties (c) of sorting tasks. The dotted line indicates the automatic partition level of each dendrogram.

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Taken together, the results of the sorting task suggest that the sensory discrimination between NW and CW is not systematic, although a subset of the NW has sensory dimensions related to off-odours in common. This result is consistent with recent findings from Honoré-Chedozeau et al. (2020), who suggested that one of the main spontaneous classification strategies of wine experts was based on the presence of wine faults.

2. Information and cultural effects on quality assessment

ANOVA results showed two significant main effects for “origin of the taster” (F = 72.8; p < 0.0001) and “type of wine” (F = 62.8; p < 0.0001) on quality scores. No significant effect of information was found (F = 0.53; p = 0.46). Only the interaction “origin of the taster * type of wine” was significant (F = 6.27; p = 0.012). The nature of this interaction can be seen in Figure 2, which shows the average quality scores for the two cultures and the two types of wine.

Figure 2. Average quality scores for the two cultures and the two types of wine. Values associated with different letters are significantly different according to a Fisher (LSD) test.

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Experts from both cultures provided significantly higher quality scores to CW than to NW. However, French experts gave significantly higher scores than Spanish experts to both types of wine, which explains why the “origin of the taster” effect is significant. These results suggest that French and Spanish experts agree that NWs have lower quality globally than CW, but French experts penalise NWs less, possibly because they are more familiar with them. This result agrees with previous research showing that French participants have a less negative attitude towards NW than participants less familiar with NW, such as those in New Zealand (Urdapilleta et al., 2021).

3. Relationship between quality assessment and description

The F1–F2 plot of the CA resulting from the citation frequencies of the descriptors generated during the sorting task is represented in Figure 3. The mean quality scores for the two groups of experts and the two information conditions have been projected as illustrative variables.

The first axis, accounting for 29.46 % of explained variance, can clearly be interpreted as a quality continuum since quality judgements from both groups of experts (Spanish and French) for the two information conditions were highly correlated (r = 0.77–0.91; p < 0.01). This unexpected absence of cultural difference can be explained by the fact that all our participants had followed similar academic oenology training, which could have “erased” cultural differences in terms of attitudes towards NW. Similar results have been found by Parr et al. (2015), who showed, despite the expected cultural differences, a global agreement between French and New Zealand experts in their minerality assessments and quality assessments (Valentin et al., 2016).

The samples associated with higher quality are situated on the left side of the plot and are mostly characterised by positive descriptors such as “very intense aroma”, “berry” and “balanced”. This group of wines comprises 2/3 of CW and 1/3 of NW. The right side of the plot is dominated by six samples characterised by low-quality ratings and some negative descriptors such as “reduction”, “acetic acid” or “faulty”. Five out of the six samples of this group are NW. The exception is the sample Sum_Cat_C that, despite being made without the strict limitations of the natural winemaking itinerary, was often characterised by animal notes, possibly as the consequence of a Brettanomyces contamination. The partition into these specific two groups was supported by a hierarchical cluster analysis followed by an automatic partition (data not shown).

Figure 3. CA carried out on the citation frequencies of the descriptors generated during the sorting task. The mean quality scores for the two cultures and the two information conditions are projected as illustrative variables.

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If the ANOVA showed a significantly lower quality for NW compared to CW, the CA shows a more nuanced result; CW and NW are not linearly separable categories from a sensory point of view. Indeed, some of the NWs have sensory characteristics that are very similar to CWs and do not present off-odours. The others (45 %) do show off-odours and explain the lower average quality for the whole NW category.

Our sensory results globally converge with those of Sáenz-Navajas et al. (2023) carried out on white wines. NWs have more off-odours than CWs. However, in our study, the percentage of faulty NW was 45 %, while Sáenz-Navajas et al. (2023) showed that 70 % of the white NW presented faults. This difference is not easy to interpret. On the one hand, red wines are more resistant to oxidation than white wines because of their polyphenol content, which is a key production strategy in the absence of SO₂. Indeed, most natural winemakers resort to the production of orange rather than white wines to profit from polyphenols provided by skin and even stem contact and, thus, prevent rapid oxidation. On the other hand, red wines, unlike whites, have the precursors used by Brettanomyces to generate volatile phenols, which, above a certain limit, can negatively affect quality, especially perceived quality among wine experts (Sáenz-Navajas et al., 2016b).

Conclusion

Our investigation substantiates and extends prior research on the sensory attributes of natural wines (NWs). Initially, our findings indicate that the distinction between conventionally produced wines (CWs) and NWs is not clear-cut from a sensory standpoint. Nevertheless, our study reveals a discernible trend: the prevalence of off-odours in NWs surpasses that in CWs, aligning with earlier research (Sáenz-Navajas et al., 2023; Pelonnier-Magimel et al., 2020). Our results introduce nuance into the binary discourse surrounding NWs, in particular to the idea that NWs are systematically flawed. Our study indicates this assertion is not entirely accurate, as only 45 % of NWs exhibited off-odours. Notably, these NWs differed from CWs in their cloudier appearances and an increased incidence of off-odours associated with the absence of sulphur dioxide and the lack of microbial control during alcoholic and malolactic fermentation. Sensory results were corroborated by chemical analyses, revealing notably higher levels of volatile acidity and turbidity, along with lower values for free and total SO₂ in NWs. The remaining 55 % of NWs demonstrated positive attributes and clustered with CWs. Thus, our findings demonstrate the technical feasibility of producing "clean" wines through natural winemaking methods. A pertinent question for future inquiries revolves around the evolution of sensory quality in NWs after several years of bottle ageing.

From a cognitive point of view, we aimed to check the potential effect of culture and information on the experts’ quality assessment of NW and CW. Our results showed agreement that NW had significantly lower quality scores than CW, but French scores were significantly higher than Spanish. This suggests that oenology training fosters a common framework among experts from diverse countries but that the French were more tolerant than the Spanish, possibly due to a higher familiarity with this wine category. Subsequent research should study consumer acceptance of NWs in tasting scenarios and comprehend the trade-off between wine sensory properties (including the risk of occasional faults) and the positive associations with naturalness and health.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Spanish Plan of Innovation, Technical and Scientific Research 2017 2020—Ramón y Cajal Ref. RYC2018-024025-I, the Spanish State Subprogram for Knowledge Generation and FEDER, EU: Ref. PID2021-126272OA-I00, PID2021-126031OB-C22 and the ACIISI project ProID2021010071.

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